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@string{ag = {Adv.\ Geophys}}

@string{ang = {Ann.\ Glaciol.}}

@string{ao = {Atmos.\ Ocean}}

@string{arfm = {Annu.\ Rev.\ Fluid\ Mech.}}

@string{dirlocalurl = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/www/pdf/}}

@string{eos = {Eos Trans.\ AGU}}

@string{epsl = {Earth Planet.\ Sci.\ Lett.}}

@string{gafd = {Geophys.\ Astrophys.\ Fluid\ Dyn.}}

@string{gca = {Geochim.\ Cosmochim.\ Acta}}

@string{gjras = {Geophys.\ J.\ R.\ Astron.\ Soc.}}

@string{grl = {Geophys.\ Res.\ Lett.}}

@string{gsab = {Geol.\ Soc.\ Am.\ Bull.}}

@string{jaot = {J.\ Atmos.\ Ocean.\ Tech.}}

@string{jmr = {J.\ Mar.\ Res.}}

@string{jms = {J.\ Mar.\ Sys.}}

@string{jot = {J.\ Turbulence }}

@string{jpo = {J.\ Phys.\ Oceanogr.}}

@string{mnras = {Mon.\ Not.\ R.\ Astron.\ Soc.}}

@string{mwr = {Mon.\ Weather Rev.}}

@string{nat = {Nature}}

@string{npg = {Nonlin.\ Proc.\ Geophys. }}

@string{oceano = {Oceano.}}

@string{om = {Ocean Modeling}}

@string{pal = {Palaeogeogr.\ Palaeoclimatol.\ Palaeoecol.}}

@string{paleo = {Paleo.}}

@string{pasp = {Publ.\ A.\ S.\ P.}}

@string{pepi = {Phys.\ Earth Planet.\ Inter.}}

@string{phf = {Phys.\ Fluids}}

@string{po = {Prog. in Oceano.}}

@string{pr = {Phys.\ Rep.}}

@string{pra = {Phys.\ Rev.\ A}}

@string{prl = {Phys.\ Rev.\ Lett.}}

@string{qjrms = {Q.\ J.\ R.\ Meteorol.\ Soc.}}

@string{rg = {Rev.\ Geophys.}}

@string{rgd = {Reg.\ Chaot.\ Dyn.}}

@string{rmp = {Rev.\ Mod.\ Phys.}}

@string{rpp = {Rev.\ Prog.\ Phys.}}

@string{rs = {Radio Sci.}}

@string{sci = {Science}}

@string{tell = {Tellus}}


@article{alexander-1995,
	Abstract = {In the early 1970s, Namias and Born speculated that ocean temperature anomalies created over the deep mixed layer in winter could be preserved in the summer thermocline and reappear at the surface in the following fall or winter. This hypothesis is examined using upper-ocean temperature observations and simulations with a mixed layer model. The data were collected at six ocean weather stations in the North Atlantic and North Pacific. Concurrent and lead-lag correlations are used to investigate temperature variations associated with the seasonal cycle in both the observations and the model simulations. Concurrent correlations between the surface and subsurface temperature anomalies in both the data and the model indicate that the penetration of temperature anomalies into the ocean is closely tied to the seasonal cycle in mixed layer depth: high correlations extend to relatively deep (shallow) depths in winter (summer). Lead-lag correlations in both the data and the model, at some of the stations, indicate that temperature anomalies beneath the mixed layer in summer are associated with the temperature anomalies in the mixed layer in the previous winter/spring and following fall/winter but are unrelated or weakly opposed to the temperature anomalies in the mixed layer in summer. These results suggest that vertical mixing processes allow ocean temperature anomalies created over a deep mixed layer in winter to be preserved below the surface in summer and reappear at the surface in the following fall, confirming the Namias\&{\#}8211;Born hypothesis. },
	Author = {Alexander, Michael A. and Deser, Clara},
	Date-Added = {2007-11-05 11:31:51 -0500},
	Date-Modified = {2007-11-05 11:32:04 -0500},
	Journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Alexander_Deser.JPO1995.pdf},
	Number = {1},
	Pages = {122--137},
	Title = {A Mechanism for the Recurrence of Wintertime Midlatitude SST Anomalies},
	Url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0485%281995%29025%3C0122%3AAMFTRO%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	Volume = {25},
	Year = {1995}}

@article{bingham-1992,
	Author = {Bingham, FM},
	Date = {1992},
	Date-Added = {2007-12-03 17:41:16 -0500},
	Date-Modified = {2007-12-03 17:41:16 -0500},
	Journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},
	Number = {C7},
	Pages = {11177-11189},
	Title = {Formation and spreading of subtropical mode water in the North Pacific},
	Volume = {97},
	Year = {1992}}

@article{bingham-2002,
	Author = {Bingham, FM and Suga, T and Hanawa, K},
	Date = {2002},
	Date-Added = {2007-12-03 17:52:10 -0500},
	Date-Modified = {2007-12-03 17:52:58 -0500},
	Journal = {J. Geophys. Res},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Bingham_et_al.JGR2002.pdf},
	Pages = {3073},
	Publisher = {16 July 2002.},
	Title = {Origin of waters observed along 137E},
	Volume = {107},
	Year = {2002}}

@article{bingham-2006,
	Author = {Bingham, F. M. and Suga, T.},
	Date-Added = {2007-12-03 18:04:43 -0500},
	Date-Modified = {2007-12-03 18:05:51 -0500},
	Isbn = {1812-0784},
	J1 = {OS},
	Journal = {Ocean Science},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Bingham_Suga.OS2006.pdf},
	Number = {1},
	Pages = {61--70},
	Publisher = {Copernicus Publications},
	Title = {Distributions of mixed layer properties in North Pacific water mass formation areas: comparison of Argo floats and World Ocean Atlas 2001},
	Ty = {JOUR},
	Url = {http://www.ocean-sci.net/2/61/2006/},
	Volume = {2},
	Year = {2006}}

@article{cirovecki-2007,
	Author = {Ivana Cerovecki and J. Marshall},
	Date-Added = {2007-10-24 16:01:52 -0400},
	Date-Modified = {2007-10-24 16:10:06 -0400},
	Journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Cirovecki_Marshall.JPO2007.pdf},
	Title = {Eddy modulation of air-sea interaction and convection.},
	Year = {2007}}

@misc{climode-proposal,
	Author = {College},
	Date-Added = {2007-06-25 18:42:24 -0400},
	Date-Modified = {2007-06-25 18:46:25 -0400},
	Howpublished = {NSF-Proposal},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/CLIMODE_proposal.pdf},
	Title = {CLIMODE: the CLIVAR mode water dynamics experiment},
	Year = {2004}}

@article{csanady-1975,
	Abstract = {Some simple momentum advection effects are considered in a current aligned with the y axis on which there is superimposed a {\tt{}"{}}cross{\tt{}"{}} flow in the x-z plane. The cross flow coupled with horizontal shear in the current tends to generate differences along the vertical in the longshore velocity, while vertical mixing tends to even out such differences. As in the scalar diffusion problem considered by Taylor, a balance is possible between the two tendencies. The equilibrium velocity distribution may support considerable lateral momentum flux, which, in the case of zero rotation, is directed down the velocity gradient, allowing the definition of an effective horizontal viscosity. When rotational effects are significant, both the sense and the magnitude of the momentum flux come to depend in a complex way on the total vorticity f + S, where f is Coriolis parameter and S the current shear. Some illustrative examples are calculated for cross flow produced by frictional effects in a boundary current. These show that horizontal momentum flux by this type of cross flow can be significant in shallow water under some circumstances. A consideration of observational evidence from the Great Lakes leads to the conclusion that this mechanism of momentum transfer may well be responsible for the observed asymmetry of wind-generated coastal jets, i.e., the strengthening of the {\tt{}"{}}right-hand{\tt{}"{}} jet (looking along the wind) at the expense of the left-hand jet. A crude estimate of horizontal momentum transport by cross flow due to the 18 water formation mechanism of Worthington in the North Atlantic shows this to be as high as implied by viscous theories of ocean circulation and to be able to generate the positive vorticity necessary for the boundary current to penetrate regions with increasing planetary vorticity. The cross flow type of momentum flux, however, differs from the viscous fluid type in several respects, i.e., in that it is consistent with a zero momentum flux condition at the boundary, and that, in a rotating fluid, it may well be directed counter to the momentum gradient. },
	Author = {Csanady, G. T.},
	Date-Added = {2007-11-05 14:40:12 -0500},
	Date-Modified = {2007-11-05 14:41:57 -0500},
	Journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Csanadi.JPO1975.pdf},
	Number = {4},
	Pages = {705--717},
	Title = {Lateral Momentum Flux in Boundary Currents},
	Ty = {JOUR},
	Url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0485%281975%29005%3C0705%3ALMFIBC%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	Volume = {5},
	Year = {1975}}

@article{dewar-2005,
	Author = {Dewar, WK and Samelson, RM and Vallis, GK},
	Date-Added = {2007-09-23 13:49:44 -0400},
	Date-Modified = {2007-09-23 13:53:28 -0400},
	Journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	Number = {2},
	Pages = {137--150},
	Publisher = {American Meteorological Society},
	Title = {The Ventilated Pool: A Model of Subtropical Mode Water},
	Volume = {35},
	Year = {2005}}

@article{donners-2005,
	Abstract = {The transformation of water masses induced by air\&{\#}8211;sea fluxes in the South Atlantic Ocean is calculated with a global ocean model, Ocean Circulation and Climate Advanced Modeling (OCCAM), and has been compared with several observational datasets. Air\&{\#}8211;sea interaction supplies buoyancy to the ocean at almost all density levels. The uncertainty of the estimates of water mass transformations is at least 10 Sv (Sv \&{\#}8801; 106 m3 s\&{\#}8722;1), largely caused by the uncertainties in heat fluxes. Further analysis of the buoyancy budget of the mixed layer in the OCCAM model shows that diffusion extracts buoyancy from the water column at all densities. In agreement with observations, water mass formation of surface water by air\&{\#}8211;sea interaction is completely balanced by consumption from diffusion. There is a large interocean exchange with the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Intermediate water is imported from the Pacific, and light surface water is imported from the Indian Ocean. South Atlantic Central Water and denser water masses are exported to the Indian Ocean. The air\&{\#}8211;sea formation rate is only a qualitative estimate of the sum of subduction and interocean exchange. Subduction generates teleconnections between the South Atlantic and remote areas where these water masses reemerge in the mixed layer. Therefore, the subduction is analyzed with a Lagrangian trajectory analysis. Surface water obducts in the South Atlantic, while all other water masses experience net subduction. The subducted Antarctic Intermediate Water and Subantarctic Mode Water reemerge mainly in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current farther downstream. Lighter waters reemerge in the eastern tropical Atlantic. As a result, the extratropical South Atlantic has a strong link with the tropical Atlantic basin and only a weak direct link with the extratropical North Atlantic. The impact of the South Atlantic on the upper branch of the thermohaline circulation is indirect: water is significantly transformed by air\&{\#}8211;sea fluxes and mixing in the South Atlantic, but most of it reemerges and subducts again farther downstream. },
	Author = {Donners, J. and Drijfhout, S. S. and Hazeleger, W.},
	Date-Added = {2007-11-07 17:58:14 -0500},
	Date-Modified = {2007-11-07 17:58:25 -0500},
	Journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Donners_et_al.JPO2005.pdf},
	Number = {10},
	Pages = {1841--1860 },
	Title = {Water Mass Transformation and Subduction in the South Atlantic},
	Ty = {JOUR},
	Url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175%2FJPO2782.1},
	Volume = {35},
	Year = {2005}}

@article{ebbesmeyer-1986,
	Author = {Ebbesmeyer, C.C. and Lindstrom, E.J.},
	Date-Added = {2007-06-20 17:34:59 -0400},
	Date-Modified = {2007-06-20 17:35:21 -0400},
	Journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Ebbesmeyer_Lindstrom.JPO1986.pdf},
	Number = {3},
	Pages = {443--453},
	Publisher = {American Meteorological Society},
	Title = {Structure and Origin of 18$\,^{\circ}$ C Water Observed during the POLYMODE Local Dynamics Experiment},
	Volume = {16},
	Year = {1986}}

@article{fine-1994,
	Author = {Fine, RA and Lukas, R and Bingham, FM and Warner, MJ and Gammon, RH},
	Date = {1994},
	Date-Added = {2007-12-03 17:42:18 -0500},
	Date-Modified = {2007-12-03 17:42:27 -0500},
	Journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Fine_et_al.JGR1994.pdf},
	Number = {C12},
	Pages = {25063-25080},
	Title = {The western equatorial Pacific: A water mass crossroads},
	Volume = {99},
	Year = {1994}}

@article{forget-2008,
	Author = {Gael Forget and Guillaume Maze and Martha Buckley and John Marshall},
	Date-Added = {2007-11-26 15:06:24 -0500},
	Date-Modified = {2007-11-26 15:07:15 -0500},
	Journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	Title = {Quantitative and dynamical analysis of EDW formation using a model-data synthesis},
	Year = {in preparation, 2008}}

@article{garret-1995,
	Author = {Chris Garrett and Kevin G. Speer and Elina Tragou},
	Date-Added = {2007-09-10 14:49:33 -0400},
	Date-Modified = {2007-09-10 14:51:53 -0400},
	Journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Garrett_et_al.JPO1995.pdf},
	Pages = {1696-1705},
	Title = {The relationship between water mass formation and the surface buoyancy flux with application to Phillip's Read Sea model},
	Volume = {25},
	Year = {1995}}

@article{hanawa-2001,
	Author = {Hanawa, K. and Talley, LD},
	Date-Added = {2007-10-23 14:45:08 -0400},
	Date-Modified = {2007-10-23 14:45:19 -0400},
	Journal = {Ocean Circulation and Climate},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Hanawa_Talley.2001.pdf},
	Pages = {373--386},
	Title = {{Mode waters}},
	Year = {2001}}

@article{hazeleger-1998,
	Author = {W. Hazeleger and S. S. Drijfhout},
	Date-Added = {2006-08-02 16:29:14 -0400},
	Date-Modified = {2007-07-12 17:31:35 -0400},
	Doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1998)028<0266:MWVIAM>2.0.CO;2},
	Journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	Keywords = {mode water, gyre, response, forcing},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Hazeleger_Drijfhout.JPO1998.pdf},
	Number = {2},
	Pages = {266-288},
	Title = {Mode Water Variability in a Model of the Subtropical Gyre: Response to Anomalous Forcing},
	Volume = {28},
	Year = {1998}}

@article{hazeleger-1999,
	Abstract = {Substantial interannual to decadal variability is observed in the properties of subtropical mode water of the North Atlantic. In this study the response of mode water to stochastic atmospheric forcing is investigated in a numerical model. In a series of experiments the response is studied to different components of stochastic atmospheric forcing, such as wind stress, freshwater flux, and heat flux. The numerical model consists of an isopycnal ocean model with explicit mixed layer physics. The stochastic forcing is superimposed on the climatological forcing. The stochastic forcing function has an idealized form, but the amplitude, the spatial, and the temporal variability are based on observations. When a stochastic heat flux is applied, an atmospheric anomaly model is coupled to the ocean model. The geometry of the model is idealized and mimics the subtropical gyre of the North Atlantic. The stochastic wind stress forcing excites an internal mode in the mode water layer of the model. The response is characterized by the propagation of baroclinic waves. The spectrum of the response to stochastic freshwater flux is red. In the coupled model the stochastic heat flux forcing generates variability characterized by a dipole pattern in the mode water. The spectrum of the response is red and dominates the response to the stochastic wind stress and freshwater flux. The response is damped by an atmospheric feedback that consists of anomalous heat fluxes, depending on the SST anomalies generated by the stochastic forcing itself. Only stochastic heat flux forcing can generate mode water variability of the observed amplitude. A preferred timescale in mode water variability should be contained in the forcing itself or it may result from modes that could not be simulated by the present model. },
	Author = {Hazeleger, W. and Drijfhout, S. S.},
	Date-Added = {2007-11-05 12:07:56 -0500},
	Date-Modified = {2007-11-05 12:08:10 -0500},
	Journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Hazeleger_Drijfhout.JPO1999.pdf},
	Number = {8},
	Pages = {1772--1786},
	Title = {Stochastically Forced Mode Water Variability},
	Ty = {JOUR},
	Url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0485%281999%29029%3C1772%3ASFMWV%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	Volume = {29},
	Year = {1999}}

@article{joyce-2000,
	Author = {Terrence M. Joyce and Clara Deser and Michael A. Spall},
	Date-Added = {2006-08-02 15:38:28 -0400},
	Date-Modified = {2006-08-02 15:41:42 -0400},
	Doi = {10.1175/1520-0442(2000)013<2550:TRBDVO>2.0.CO;2},
	Journal = {Journal of Climate},
	Keywords = {NAO, EDW, mode water},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Joyce_et_al.JC2000.pdf},
	Number = {14},
	Pages = {2550-2569},
	Title = {The Relation between Decadal Variability of Subtropical Mode Water and the North Atlantic Oscillation},
	Volume = {13},
	Year = {2000}}

@article{khatiwala-2002,
	Abstract = {Time series of hydrographic and transient tracer (3H and 3He) observations from the central Labrador Sea collected between 1991 and 1996 are presented to document the complex changes in the tracer fields as a result of variations in convective activity during the 1990s. Between 1991 and 1993, as atmospheric forcing intensified, convection penetrated to progressively increasing depths, reaching \&{\#}8764;2300 m in the winter of 1993. Over that period the potential temperature (\&{\#}952;)/salinity (S) properties of Labrador Sea Water stayed nearly constant as surface cooling and downward mixing of freshwater was balanced by excavating and upward mixing of the warmer and saltier Northeast Atlantic Deep Water. It is shown that the net change in heat content of the water column (150\&{\#}8211;2500 m) between 1991 and 1993 was negligible compared to the estimated mean heat loss over that period (110 W m\&{\#}8722;2), implying that the lateral convergence of heat into the central Labrador Sea nearly balances the atmospheric cooling on a surprisingly short timescale. Interestingly, the 3H\&{\#}8211;3He age of Labrador Sea Water increased during this period of intensifying convection. Starting in 1995, winters were milder and convection was restricted to the upper 800 m. Between 1994 and 1996, the evolution of 3H\&{\#}8211;3He age is similar to that of a stagnant water body. In contrast, the increase in \&{\#}952; and S over that period implies exchange of tracers with the boundaries via both an eddy-induced overturning circulation and along-isopycnal stirring by eddies {$[$}with an exchange coefficient of O(500 m2 s\&{\#}8722;1){$]$}. The authors construct a freshwater budget for the Labrador Sea and quantitatively demonstrate that sea ice meltwater is the dominant cause of the large annual cycle of salinity in the Labrador Sea, both on the shelf and the interior. It is shown that the transport of freshwater by eddies into the central Labrador Sea (\&{\#}8764;140 cm between March and September) can readily account for the observed seasonal freshening. Finally, the authors discuss the role of the eddy-induced overturning circulation with regard to transport and dispersal of the newly ventilated Labrador Sea Water to the boundary current system and compare its strength (2\&{\#}8211;3 Sv) to the diagnosed buoyancy-forced formation rate of Labrador Sea Water. },
	Author = {Khatiwala, Samar and Schlosser, Peter and Visbeck, Martin},
	Date-Added = {2007-11-20 19:20:43 -0500},
	Date-Modified = {2007-11-20 19:20:43 -0500},
	Journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Khatiwala_et_al.JPO2002.pdf},
	Number = {2},
	Pages = {666--686 },
	Title = {Rates and Mechanisms of Water Mass Transformation in the Labrador Sea as Inferred from Tracer Observations*},
	Ty = {JOUR},
	Url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0485%282002%29032%3C0666%3ARAMOWM%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	Volume = {32},
	Year = {2002}}

@article{kwon-2004,
	Author = {Kwon, Y.O. and Riser, S.C.},
	Date-Added = {2007-07-17 10:09:59 -0400},
	Date-Modified = {2007-07-17 10:10:59 -0400},
	Journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Kwon_Riser.GRL2004.pdf},
	Title = {North Atlantic Subtropical Mode Water: A history of ocean-atmosphere interaction 1961--2000},
	Volume = {31},
	Year = {2004}}

@article{ladd-2000,
	Author = {Carol Ladd and LuAnne Thompson},
	Date-Added = {2006-08-02 16:17:27 -0400},
	Date-Modified = {2007-11-06 16:14:54 -0500},
	Doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(2000)030<0868:FMFNPC>2.0.CO;2},
	Journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	Keywords = {EDW,mode water},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Ladd_Thompson.JPO2000.pdf},
	Number = {5},
	Pages = {868-887},
	Title = {Formation Mechanisms for North Pacific Central and Eastern Subtropical Mode Waters},
	Volume = {30},
	Year = {2000}}

@article{ladd-2001,
	Abstract = {An isopycnal model coupled with a mixed layer model is used to study transformation and formation rates in the North Pacific. When annual formation rates are averaged over the entire North Pacific, a large peak in water mass formation is found at a density of approximately \&{\#}963;\&{\#}952; = 26 kg m\&{\#}8722;3. This peak in formation rate corresponds to the formation of North Pacific Central Mode Water (CMW) in the model. No corresponding peaks in formation rate are found at the densities of Subtropical Mode Water (STMW; \&{\#}963;\&{\#}952; \&{\#}8764;25.4 kg m\&{\#}8722;3) or Eastern Subtropical Mode Water (ESMW; \&{\#}963;\&{\#}952; \&{\#}8764;24\&{\#}8211;25.4 kg m\&{\#}8722;3) when averaged over the entire model basin. However, when calculated locally, enhanced formation rates are found at the densities of these mode water masses. The formation of each of the three types of North Pacific mode water in the model occurs because of different circumstances. As expected, STMW formation is dependent on the strong cooling and resultant deep mixed layers over the Kuroshio Current region. However, formation rates in the STMW formation region (west of the date line) imply that most of the thickness maximum formed there each winter is subsequently reentrained into the mixed layer during the next winter where it is further cooled, preconditioning it to become denser varieties of STMW farther east. Similarly, preconditioning west of the formation region is important in CMW formation. Only 33{\%} of the STMW escapes reentrainment the next winter. The STMW signature (minimum in vertical stratification) remains in the region in the next winter owing to a tight recirculation that carries the mode water south before the mixed layer deepens again the next winter. The renewal times calculated from the model are 1.5\&{\#}8211;5.5 yr for STMW and approximately 10\&{\#}8211;14 yr for CMW. The ESMW formation is due to a band of weak positive formation combined with a wide layer outcrop. The only region where forcing by the atmosphere can directly influence an isopycnal layer is where the isopycnal layer outcrops into the mixed layer. The wide layer outcrop at ESMW densities (\&{\#}8764;30{${}^\circ$}N, 140{${}^\circ$}W) is at least partially due to weak summer heating in the southeastern part of the formation region. Only 13{\%} of the ESMW volume escapes reentrainment by the mixed layer in the succeeding year contributing to a renewal time of only 1\&{\#}8211;2 yr. },
	Author = {Ladd, Carol and Thompson, LuAnne},
	Date-Added = {2007-11-16 17:31:17 -0500},
	Date-Modified = {2007-11-16 17:31:17 -0500},
	Journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Ladd_Thompson.JPO2001.pdf},
	Number = {6},
	Pages = {1517--1537 },
	Title = {Water Mass Formation in an Isopycnal Model of the North Pacific},
	Ty = {JOUR},
	Url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0485%282001%29031%3C1517%3AWMFIAI%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	Volume = {31},
	Year = {2001}}

@article{marsh-2005,
	Author = {Marsh, R. and Josey, SA and Nurser, AJG and de Cuevas, BA and Coward, AC},
	Date-Added = {2007-06-20 17:09:39 -0400},
	Date-Modified = {2007-06-20 17:10:12 -0400},
	Journal = {Ocean Science},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Marsh_et_al.OS2005.pdf},
	Number = {2},
	Pages = {127--144},
	Title = {Water mass transformation in the North Atlantic over 1985-2002 simulated in an eddy-permitting model},
	Volume = {1},
	Year = {2005}}

@article{marshall-1988,
	Author = {John Marshall and George Nurser},
	Date-Added = {2006-08-30 14:52:12 -0400},
	Date-Modified = {2006-08-30 14:54:19 -0400},
	Doi = {10.1256/smsqj.48407},
	Journal = {Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society},
	Keywords = {gyre, circulation, subtropical, mode water},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Marshall_Nurser.QJRMS1988.pdf},
	Number = {484},
	Pages = {1517-1534},
	Title = {On the recirculation of the subtropical gyre},
	Volume = {114},
	Year = {1988}}

@article{marshall-1993b,
	Author = {Marshall, J.C. and Nurser, A.J.G. and Williams, R.G.},
	Date-Added = {2007-06-22 02:42:58 -0400},
	Date-Modified = {2007-06-22 02:45:56 -0400},
	Journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Marshall_et_al.JPO1993.pdf},
	Number = {7},
	Pages = {1315--1329},
	Publisher = {American Meteorological Society},
	Title = {Inferring the Subduction Rate and Period over the North Atlantic},
	Volume = {23},
	Year = {1993}}

@article{marshall-1999,
	Author = {Marshall, D. and Marshall, J.},
	Date-Added = {2007-06-23 23:12:06 -0400},
	Date-Modified = {2007-06-23 23:15:13 -0400},
	Journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Marshall_Marshall.JPO1995.pdf},
	Number = {1},
	Pages = {138--151},
	Publisher = {American Meteorological Society},
	Title = {On the Thermodynamics of Subduction},
	Volume = {25},
	Year = {1999}}

@article{marshall-1999c,
	Author = {Marshall, J. and Jamous, D. and Nilsson, J.},
	Date-Added = {2007-07-04 00:41:55 -0400},
	Date-Modified = {2007-07-04 00:42:37 -0400},
	Journal = {Deep-Sea Research},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/work/papers/mode_water_formation/biblio/Marshall_et_al.DSR1999.pdf},
	Pages = {545--572},
	Title = {Reconciling thermodynamic and dynamic methods of computation of water-mass transformation rates},
	Volume = {46},
	Year = {1999}}

@article{marshall-2005,
	Author = {Marshall, J.},
	Date-Added = {2007-06-23 15:52:43 -0400},
	Date-Modified = {2007-06-23 15:57:42 -0400},
	Journal = {Clivar Variations},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Marshall.CLIVAR2005.pdf},
	Number = {2},
	Pages = {8--14},
	Title = {CLIMODE: a mode water dynamics experiment in support of CLIVAR},
	Volume = {3},
	Year = {2005}}

@article{maze-2008a,
	Author = {Guillaume Maze and Gael Forget and Martha Buckley and John Marshall},
	Date-Added = {2007-11-26 15:02:58 -0500},
	Date-Modified = {2007-11-26 15:06:05 -0500},
	Journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	Title = {Localization of North Atlantic subtropical mode water formation through air-sea heat fluxes},
	Year = {in preparation, 2007}}

@article{mccartney-1982,
	Author = {McCartney, MS},
	Date-Added = {2007-10-23 14:40:42 -0400},
	Date-Modified = {2007-10-23 14:45:41 -0400},
	Journal = {Journal of Marine Research},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/McCartney.JMR1982.pdf},
	Pages = {427--464},
	Title = {{The subtropical recirculation of mode waters}},
	Volume = {40},
	Year = {1982}}

@article{oconnor-2002,
	Author = {O'Connor, B.M. and Fine, R.A. and Maillet, K.A. and Olson, D.B.},
	Date-Added = {2007-11-06 11:19:14 -0500},
	Date-Modified = {2007-11-06 11:19:25 -0500},
	Journal = {Deep-Sea Res},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/OConnor_et_al.DSR2002.pdf},
	Pages = {1571--1590},
	Title = {{Formation rates of subtropical underwater in the Pacific Ocean}},
	Volume = {49},
	Year = {2002}}

@article{old-2006,
	Abstract = {A study of the formation and propagation of volume anomalies in North Atlantic Mode Waters is presented, based on 100 yr of monthly mean fields taken from the control run of the Third Hadley Centre Coupled Ocean\&{\#}8211;Atmosphere GCM (HadCM3). Analysis of the temporal and spatial variability in the thickness between pairs of isothermal surfaces bounding the central temperature of the three main North Atlantic subtropical mode waters shows that large-scale variability in formation occurs over time scales ranging from 5 to 20 yr. The largest formation anomalies are associated with a southward shift in the mixed layer isothermal distribution, possibly due to changes in the gyre dynamics and/or changes in the overlying wind field and air\&{\#}8211;sea heat fluxes. The persistence of these anomalies is shown to result from their subduction beneath the winter mixed layer base where they recirculate around the subtropical gyre in the background geostrophic flow. Anomalies in the warmest mode (18{${}^\circ$}C) formed on the western side of the basin persist for up to 5 yr. They are removed by mixing transformation to warmer classes and are returned to the seasonal mixed layer near the Gulf Stream where the stored heat may be released to the atmosphere. Anomalies in the cooler modes (16{${}^\circ$} and 14{${}^\circ$}C) formed on the eastern side of the basin persist for up to 10 yr. There is no clear evidence of significant transformation of these cooler mode anomalies to adjacent classes. It has been proposed that the eastern anomalies are removed through a tropical\&{\#}8211;subtropical water mass exchange mechanism beneath the trade wind belt (south of 20{${}^\circ$}N). The analysis shows that anomalous mode water formation plays a key role in the long-term storage of heat in the model, and that the release of heat associated with these anomalies suggests a predictable climate feedback mechanism. },
	Author = {Old, Chris and Haines, Keith},
	Date-Added = {2007-11-16 11:44:34 -0500},
	Date-Modified = {2007-11-16 11:44:41 -0500},
	Journal = {Journal of Climate},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Old_Haines.JC2006.pdf},
	Number = {7},
	Pages = {1126--1148 },
	Title = {North Atlantic Subtropical Mode Waters and Ocean Memory in HadCM3},
	Ty = {JOUR},
	Url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175%2FJCLI3650.1},
	Volume = {19},
	Year = {2006}}

@article{paiva-2002,
	Author = {Afonso M. Paiva and Eri P. Chassignet},
	Date-Added = {2006-08-02 16:21:46 -0400},
	Date-Modified = {2006-08-02 16:25:28 -0400},
	Doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(2002)032<2666:NAMOLF>2.0.CO;2},
	Journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	Keywords = {north atlantic, low-frequency, variability, mode water,EDW},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Paiva_Chassignet.JPO2002.pdf},
	Number = {9},
	Pages = {2666-2680},
	Title = {North Atlantic Modeling of Low-Frequency Variability in Mode Water Formation},
	Volume = {32},
	Year = {2002}}

@article{peng-2006,
	Author = {Peng, G. and Chassignet, E.P. and Kwon, Y.O. and Riser, S.C.},
	Date-Added = {2007-11-06 11:44:10 -0500},
	Date-Modified = {2007-11-06 11:44:19 -0500},
	Journal = {Ocean Modelling},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Peng_et_al.OCMOD2006.pdf},
	Number = {1},
	Pages = {65--85},
	Publisher = {Elsevier},
	Title = {{Investigation of variability of the North Atlantic Subtropical Mode Water using profiling float data and numerical model output}},
	Volume = {13},
	Year = {2006}}

@article{qinyu-2002,
	Author = {Qinyu, Liu and Aijun, Pan},
	Date-Added = {2007-12-03 18:00:41 -0500},
	Date-Modified = {2007-12-03 18:06:43 -0500},
	Doi = {10.1007/s11802-002-0022-8},
	Journal = {Journal of Ocean University of China (English Edition)},
	Number = {1},
	Pages = {1--7},
	Title = {Recent advances in studies on formation mechanism of subtropical mode water and its climate features in north pacific},
	Ty = {JOUR},
	Url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11802-002-0022-8},
	Volume = {1},
	Year = {2002}}

@article{qiu-2006,
	Author = {Qiu, Bo and Chen, Shuiming},
	Date = {2006},
	Date-Added = {2007-09-03 11:28:56 -0400},
	Date-Modified = {2007-09-03 11:33:57 -0400},
	Journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Qiu_Chen.JPO2006.pdf},
	Pages = {1365-1380},
	Title = {Decadal Variability in the Formation of the North Pacific Subtropical Mode Water: Oceanic versus Atmospheric Control},
	Year = {2006}}

@article{qiu-2007,
	Author = {Qiu, B. and Chen, S. and Hacker, P.},
	Date-Added = {2007-09-03 11:35:43 -0400},
	Date-Modified = {2007-09-03 11:37:32 -0400},
	Journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Qiu_et_al.JPO2007.pdf},
	Pages = {982-1000},
	Title = {Effect of Mesoscale Eddies on Subtropical Mode Water Variability from the Kuroshio Extension System Study (KESS)},
	Volume = {37},
	Year = {2007}}

@article{qu-2002,
	Abstract = {The annual subduction rate in the North Pacific is estimated using five-day outputs from a high-resolution general circulation model (GCM). Two maxima (>200 m yr\&{\#}8722;1) are found in the western North Pacific: one is responsible for the formation of the subtropical mode water (STMW) and the other for the formation of the central mode water (CMW). A local maximum (>75 m yr\&{\#}8722;1) is also found in the formation region of the eastern subtropical mode water (ESMW). These results are compared with a calculation using the winter mixed layer depth and annual mean velocity fields to examine the effect of mesoscale eddies. Although the mesoscale eddies do not markedly affect the general subduction pattern, they enhance the annual subduction rate by up to 100 m yr\&{\#}8722;1 in the formation region of the STMW/CMW, a 34{\%} increase in a regional average (30{${}^\circ$}\&{\#}8211;44{${}^\circ$}N, 140{${}^\circ$}E\&{\#}8211;170{${}^\circ$}W). Further analysis shows that the effects of the mean seasonal cycle and smaller-scale (<30 days) eddies are generally small. The authors suggest that the two peaks in the subduction rate are related to a double-front structure on the intergyre boundary in the western North Pacific. },
	Author = {Qu, Tangdong and Xie, Shang-Ping and Mitsudera, Humio and Ishida, Akio},
	Date-Added = {2007-11-16 17:31:26 -0500},
	Date-Modified = {2007-11-16 17:31:26 -0500},
	Journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Qu_et_al.JPO2002.pdf},
	Number = {3},
	Pages = {746--763 },
	Title = {Subduction of the North Pacific Mode Waters in a Global High-Resolution GCM*},
	Ty = {JOUR},
	Url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0485%282002%29032%3C0746%3ASOTNPM%3E2.0.CO%3B2},
	Volume = {32},
	Year = {2002}}

@article{rainville-2007,
	Author = {Rainville, L. and Jayne, SR and McClean, JL and Maltrud, ME},
	Date-Added = {2007-10-18 17:55:01 -0400},
	Date-Modified = {2007-10-18 17:55:20 -0400},
	Journal = {Ocean Modelling},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Rainville_et_al.OCMOD2007.pdf},
	Number = {4},
	Pages = {338--356},
	Publisher = {Elsevier},
	Title = {{Formation of Subtropical Mode Water in a high-resolution ocean simulation of the Kuroshio Extension region}},
	Volume = {17},
	Year = {2007}}

@article{speer-1992,
	Author = {Kevin G. Speer and Eli Tziperman},
	Date-Added = {2006-08-02 15:31:39 -0400},
	Date-Modified = {2007-06-10 00:04:45 -0400},
	Doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(1992)022<0093:ROWMFI>2.0.CO;2},
	Journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	Keywords = {EDW, mode water, north atlantic},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Speer_Tziperman.JPO1992.pdf},
	Pages = {93-104},
	Title = {Rates of Water Mass Formation in the North Atlantic Ocean},
	Volume = {22},
	Year = {1992}}

@article{speer-1995,
	Author = {Speer, K.G. and Isemer, H.J. and Biastoch, A.},
	Date-Added = {2007-06-10 00:03:33 -0400},
	Date-Modified = {2007-06-28 14:21:56 -0400},
	Journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Speer_et_al.JPO1995.pdf},
	Number = {10},
	Pages = {2444--2457},
	Publisher = {American Meteorological Society},
	Title = {Water Mass Formation from Revised COADS Data},
	Volume = {25},
	Year = {1995}}

@article{suga-1989,
	Author = {Suga, T and Hanawa, K and Toba, Y},
	Date-Added = {2007-12-03 17:51:59 -0500},
	Date-Modified = {2007-12-03 17:54:43 -0500},
	Journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	Local-Url = {file://localhost/Users/gmaze/web/web_scripts/pdf/Suga_et_al.JPO1989.pdf},
	Number = {10},
	Pages = {1605-1618},
	Publisher = {American Meteorological Society},
	Title = {Subtropical Mode Water in the 137E Section},
	Volume = {19},
	Year = {1989}}

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	<dict>
		<key>group name</key>
		<string>Antarctic Circumpolar Wave</string>
		<key>keys</key>
		<string>white-2004a,white-2000a,white-1996,motoi-1998,white-1999,cai-1999,qiu-1997,haarsma-2000,gloersen-2001,white-1998,venegas-2003,connolley-2002,fischer-2004,white-2002d,white-2002c,cai-2001,white-2002a,white-2006,white-2001,baines-2000,christoph-1998,colin-2001,carril-2001,jacobs-1996,white-2004c,park-2004,peterson-1998</string>
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	<dict>
		<key>group name</key>
		<string>Atm response to external forcing</string>
		<key>keys</key>
		<string>czaja-2002,ting-1995,kushnir-2002,shutts-1987,maze-2006b,maze-2007,peng-1999,maze-2007b,miller-1994,peng-1995,kushner-2001,hoerling-2002,ring-2007,lunkeit-1997,peng-1997,ferreira-2005,white-2002c,inatsu-2003,czaja-1999,peng-2001,smagorinsky-1953,hoskins-1981,kushnir-1996,pena-2004,hall-2001a,white-2004a</string>
	</dict>
	<dict>
		<key>group name</key>
		<string>Mode waters</string>
		<key>keys</key>
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		<string>Mode waters: Atlantic</string>
		<key>keys</key>
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	</dict>
	<dict>
		<key>group name</key>
		<string>Mode waters: Pacific</string>
		<key>keys</key>
		<string>yasuda-2003,ladd-2000,suga-1989,uehara-2003,bingham-2006,qiu-2006,qu-2002,ladd-2001,rainville-2007,bingham-1992,yasuda-1997,suga-1997,fine-1994,qiu-2007,bingham-2002,qinyu-2002,tsujino-2004,oconnor-2002</string>
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