Technology and Education
Conference, Ekpedeftiria Doukas S.A., Athens, Greece, 1991.
Copyright, 1991.
Plato, in
all his striving to imagine an ideal training school, failed to notice
that Athens was a greater school than any university even he could dream up. In
other words, the greatest school had been put out for human use before it had
been thought out. Now this is especially true of our media.
Marshall
McLuhan, Understanding Media, 1964. McLuhan, Understanding Media, (New York:
McGraw-Hill),p. 49.
New technologies very often verify older
ideas about knowing and learning, but as McLuhan points out, they are moving so
quickly we hardly have time to notice. Today the computer is making it possible
to combine all the media types present in our electronic world. Television,
radio, animation, and print in the forms of video, audio, graphics, and word
processing can be manipulated by software to perform together like a
"memory theater". Around 516 BC Simonides invented the "art of
memory". He equated the methods of classical poetry and painting and
taught that these forms, acted upon by memory, were intense visualization. In
order to demonstrate this, spaces were designed with visual details that would
elicit lines of poetry to the initiated. Carefully placed windows and small
openings would direct light onto these details. The seminar topic of 516 BC was
" Visual Education and Memory Theater Technology."
We live in a world of images. The electronic
transmission of video (sound and picture) has literally wrapped the planet in
an envelope of imagery. To navigate this realm we have relied on the passive
medium of television. All of us have become image interpreters. Education is
not only an interpretive situation, it is a translation process as well. To
understand how we interpret and translate images it becomes necessary to create
tools that allow for more than the passive receiving of audio/visual
information.
We need composers.
Compositional tools like multimedia
technology begin to allow for an active role in image learning. These tools
make possible the connection of categories of imagery into a coherent body of
audio/visual knowledge. By examining and linking spatial images (maps, charts),
graphic images (graphs, diagrams), pictorial images (painting, sound,
photograpy), narrative (film, video), and new dimensions like simulation we
begin to create a context for the study of multimedia representation. We can
begin to discuss "image logic, image syntax, and image retention."
What becomes quickly apparent is that the
transitional structures that move an idea through these categories are
important to image learning. How could a map using graphics to reveal a process
be enhanced by photography and then animated (motion/audio) to approach a
simulation? How can the simple act of sketching become a fundamental learning
skill just as reading and writing are today? Is sketching done with a pencil, a
camera, a computer? When we say that we want to "put something in
perspective" do we mean it literally? What do shifts in perspective sound
like?
We are learning that any subject is
interesting and learnable if the mind's eye/ear is engaged. Multimedia computer
technologies simply give us a good "eye for the obvious". The use of
imagery as a teaching tool is our oldest educational experience. Imagery and
its inherent interpretive nature allows us new "ways of teaching". By
encouraging a multimedia literacy we begin to understand that illustration is
not a secondary function of facts but is at the very core of understanding.
In a paper by Harvard cognitive psychologists
Stephen Kosslyn and Christopher Chabris it is argued that:
After recognizing an observed picture, one has
matched it to a stored representation of the pictured object or scene, and
knows only that it is familiar. This matching process is exclusively visual,
and it does not result in a name or any other information. In contrast, after
identifying an object, one has access to the entire range of information
associated with it, including sounds it makes, its texture, the categories to
which it belongs, some specific exemplars of its type, and so on. When one has
identified an object, one has access to a multimodal set of information.
S.
Kosslyn and C. Chabris, Naming Pictures, Journal of Visual Languages and
Computing, Volume 1, Number 1, 1990, p.77.
In order to approach this notion of "a multimodal set
of information" that is employable as a teaching/learning mechanism, it is
important to understand the relationship between image types and the concept of
visualization.
Visualization is a current buzz word. The
number of journals and conferences on the subject multiplies annually. The
basic questions of whether the user of visualization can effectively
distinguish between model and reality and whether the "mediated
experience" actually diminishes the sense of real discovery will never be
resolved.
These questions are attended by others: How
does spatialization of information relate to visualization? How does image
perception work? How do we conceptualize with vision and sound? What elements
of vision affect the other senses? What is the role of the illustration? What
is a multimedia simulation? Is seeing believing/learning? A good deal of
contemporary psychological research is leaving the verbal behavior tradition to
investigate the questions of how visualization works.
This ability to model with "whatever
sense is in highest definition" for the investigator is key to
visualization as a concept. The sightless person uses sound as the
visualization sense. Someone who is deaf as well as blind must use touch as the
primary instrument of visualization. Because we have used sight as our basic
tool of survival it has become the prejudiced sense for visualization. We
discuss visualization but what we really mean is whatever triggers imagination,
whatever renders understanding . Perhaps a better term for multimedia
visualization would be cognitization. The clarity of understanding is dependent
on the rendering of pattern that can be dissected and reassembled according to
need.
The reasons for visualizing information are
to remember it and to be able to use what is remembered. The human memory and
its need for pattern recognition is evident in our constructions for
"getting there and back".
We moderns who have no memories at all, like the
professor, employ from time to time some private mnemotechnic not of vital
importance to us in our lives and professions. But in the ancient world, devoid
of printing, without paper for note taking or on which to type lectures, the
trained memory was of vital importance. And the ancient memories were trained
by an art which reflected the art and architecture of the ancient world, which
could depend on faculties of intense visual memorisation which we have lost.
Francis
Yates, The Art of Memory, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), p. 4.
In order to have a structure for trying to understand the
ideas of image logic, image syntax, and image retention I would like to
categorize audio/visual information. These categories, of course, naturally
overlap and intersect. The use of a kind of syntax to connect them when they do
not seem to overlap or intersect will be discussed later. First, the categories
of imagery:
Spatial
Graphic
Pictorial
Narrative
Simulation
SPATIAL configuration is an element of all
representations. The spatial representation is concerned with making space
visible or audible. The most common example that each of us encounters is the
map. The map is both a visual design of space and an article of faith. We tend
to believe that a place actually exists where a map tells us it is.
The origin of the map is lost to history. No one
knows when or where or for what purpose someone got the idea to draw a sketch
to communicate a sense of place, a sense of "here" in relation to
"there". It must have been many millennia ago, probably before
written language. It certainly was long before the human mind could conceive of
the worlds beyond shore and horizon, beyond Earth itself, that could be
embraced through mapping.
J.N.
Wilford, The MapMakers, (New York: Vintage Books, 1981), p. 7.
Another example of early spatial visualization that we are
all familiar with is the constellations.
Constellations are the invention of human
imagination, not of nature. They are an expression of the human desire to
impress its own order on the apparent chaos of the night sky. For navigators
beyond a sight of land or for travellers in the trackless desert who wanted
signposts, for farmers who wanted a calendar, and for shepherds who wanted a
nightly clock, the division of the sky into recognizable star groupings had
practical purposes. But perhaps the motivation was to humanize the forbidding
blackness of night.
Ian
Ridpath, StarTales, (New York: Universe Books, 1988), p. 1.
We are reminded also that the "face" of time is
the visual representation of duration and that the calendar is the visual
representation of the seasons.
The sundial, water clock, and hour glass were all
designed to "show" the passing of time, by gradual shadow across a
dial, of water from a bowl, of sand through a glass...The needs of mechanical
timekeeping, the logic of the machine itself, imposed new feeling. Instead of
being synonymous with repeated cycles of the sun, which varied as the cycles of
the seasons commanded, or with shorter cycles of other flowing media, time was
not measured by the staccato of a machine.
Daniel
Boorstin, The Discoverers, (New York: Random House, 1983), p. 38.
The compass also is a visual tool for spatial navigation.
Sailors, leaving behind their crude sketch maps,
rough diagrams of familiar places, now could take along true maps, which
oriented them to the whole world...the compass provided a worldwide absolute
for space comparable to that which the mechanical clock and the uniform hour
provided for time...From the very nature of our spherical spinning planet, the
marking of time and the marking of distance were inseparable. When you moved
great distances from your home out into the uncharted great oceans you could
not know precisely "where" you were unless you had a way of finding
precisely "when" you were.
Daniel
Boorstin, The Discoverers, (New York: Random House, 1983), p. 46.
The history of the map (both for Earth and sky), the clock,
the compass and the calendar are all equally important visualizations that
continue to be refined to give us a sense of space. Contemporary mapping
techniques using satellite imagery and image processing software have given us
new visions of the Earth and the heavens. These new devices and techniques have
merged the map, the clock, and the compass into digital information that can be
processed with a computer to reveal not only a sense of "here and
there" but environmental conditions dependent on changes in the season and
human interaction.
Acoustic engineering as a locating technology
also makes sound an important player in spatial imaging. The inventions of
sonar, seismic measuring of earthquakes, ultrasound, and acoustic microscopy
are all technologies that exchange the eye for the ear and have made
visualizing phenomena possible.
We are able to use our ears to identify the direction
from which a particular sound is coming, even if we cannot see the source. From
antiquity, fishermen navigating near a coast in dense fog have made loud noises
and listened for echoes to help them guess their distance from known points,
thus taking advantage of the relatively low velocity of sound.
Seeing
with Sound, The Encyclopedia of Modern Technology, (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1987),
p.65.
The interplay of spatial representations and the techniques
developed for their portrayal have played a central role in our attempts to
visualize the world.
GRAPHS are visual representations of
abstracted properties and relationships. They allow the eye to quickly grasp
the dynamics of change. At its most basic, the simple graph is composed of
graphics (points and lines) and geometry (relative positions of the points and
lines) that together visualize a relationship. As the summer goes on (x as time
axis) the temperature goes up (y as the heat axis). As they become more complex
and use greater numbers of variables (heat, time, number of hours of daylight,
etc.) their image becomes more articulate. When combined with techniques like
color, shading, geometric organization, and animation they become even more
powerful visual signals.
Historically this way of visualizing events
has been used to explain quite complex situations such as Napolean's march and
retreat from Russia, the classic of Charles Joseph Minard (1781-1870), the
French engineer, which shows the terrible fate of Napolean's army in Russia.
Six variables are plotted: the size of the army, its location on a
two-dimensional surface, direction of the army's movement, and temperature on
various dates during the retreat from Moscow. It may well be the best
statistical graphic ever drawn. (Edward Tufte, The Visual Display of
Quantitative Information, (Cheshire, Conn: Graphics Press, 1983), p. 41.
Today, the term "scientific
visualization" in computer science has commonly come to mean complex
computational models which produce simulation data that require geometric based
algorithms for interpretation. What this means is that numbers become pictures
and/or sounds. Radio telescopes scanning the heavens produce more numerical
data than can ever be examined point by point. If the points are plotted
graphically, however, relationships can be understood. The use of very
sophisticated three-dimensional moving graphic images produced by
supercomputers is allowing scientists to literally see phenomena that without
graphic representation would remain masses of numbers. (The Mechanical Universe
and Beyond, produced by the California Institute of Technology and the
Annenberg/CPB Foundation, is a fine example of this kind of computer graphic
visualization.) The Lorenz Transformation program produced for this series
allows students to actually see relativity in three-dimensional animation.
PICTORIAL representation concerns expression.
Expression may be the artist's attempt to translate impressions of the world
into an audio/visual representation. Pictorial representations may also be a
depiction of the invisible world such as an expression of emotion, thought,
temporal abstractions, or symbolic associations.
Changes in technology have always affected
artistic technique and allowed the artist ever increasing possibilities for
representing emotions and ideas about the world. From the earliest cave
painting to medieval religious subjects, to Renaissance perspective there is a
fascinating catalog of ways in which we have refined the experience of
understanding more carefully. This revolution in visualization coincided with
developments in optics (the telescope, microscope, eye glasses) and in
acoustics (musical instruments, opera, etc).
Suddenly viewers were looking, not at flat
metaphorical images, but into worlds that opened and vanished into infinity.
And because of technologies like printing they were seeing many many images.
The printing of pictures, however, unlike the
printing of words from movable types, brought a completely new thing into
existence - it made possible for the first time pictorial statements of a kind
that could be exactly repeated during the effective life of the printing
surface...it becomes obvious that without prints we should have very few of our
modern sciences, technologies, archeologies, or ethnographies - for all are
dependent, first and last, upon information conveyed by exactly repeatable
visual or pictorial statements."
William
Ivins, Prints and Visual Comunication},(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1986) p.10.
The invention of modern still photography, from its humble
beginnings in shadow play and silhouettes to stereoscopic imagery to today's
astonishing holographic images, provides pictorial visualization with powerful
tools. The use of the cutaway drawing, the anatomical sketch, the
representation of animal and plant species, the newspaper picture, and the
varieties of popular advertising imagery are all characterized by the term
pictorial.
Sound imagery also plays an important part in
pictorial understanding. R. Murray Shafer refers to the study of "acoustic
design". He defines this as:
an interdiscipline in which musicians, acousticians,
psychologists, sociologists and others would study the world soundscape
together in order to make intelligent recommendations for its improvement. This
study would consist of documenting important features, of noting differences,
parallels and trends, of collecting sounds threatened with extinction, of
studying the effects of new sounds before they are released into the
environment, of studying the rich symbolism sounds have for man and of studying
human behavior patterns in different sonic environments in order to use these
insights in planning future environments for man. Cross-cultural evidence from
around the world must be carefully assembled and interpreted.
R.
Murray Shafer, The Tuning of the World, (Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press, 1980), p. 4-5..
In my own experience with an ornithologist doing a bird
count of an endangered wetland, I realized that he was doing fifty percent of
his recognition of bird species by listening to bird calls and was fully
confident of his identifications without ever actually seeing the birds.
Sound and pictures create powerful images
that evoke memories and emotions. Sound adds a new dimension to visual
information that can add context, ask questions, or tell stories. This additive
process in image making leads us to the multiple image realm.
Putting two images together always creates
comparison. The images usually appear to be similar in some way or completely
dissimilar. Either way, we attempt to make some sense of the juxtaposition.
Sequencing of images in order to understand an idea or phenomena would be
characterized as NARRATIVE.
The creator of a narrative visualization
relies on our natural tendency to find a connection between images. A movie,
for example, depends on a variety of narrative techniques to which the audience
will respond. One of these techniques is the use of cuts to indicate a change
of place or time. Another is the use of camera angles which point upward to
powerful characters and downward towards characters in weak positions. These
techniques rely on the director's knowledge that the presentation of about
thirty still frames per second will cause the viewer to judge the contents of
the images in motion. Narrative visualizations occur throughout history and
across media. The panel paintings of 15th century Siena, Greco-Roman mosaics,
and the early French tapestries are but a few of the examples. Using knowledge
of the chosen medium, its accepted conventions, and human nature, the task of
the narrator is to provide the elements of narrative glue through the creation,
positioning, and ordering of images.
Narrative techniques for visualizing
phenomena are as old as storytelling itself. Hieroglyphs strung together
recorded the myths and legends of the Egyptians, the codexes of the Mayan
civilizations were pictographic records of events, Chinese characters are line
drawings of complex ideas. Though each constellation in the night sky is
singular in its visual representation, collectively they are woven into the
rich fabric of mythological events. "Perseus flies to the rescue of
Andromeda, Orion faces the charge of the snorting bull, Bootes herds bears
around the pole, and the ship of the Argonauts sails in search of the golden
fleece. (Ian Ridpath, Star Tales, p.10.) Changes in the seasons move the
constellations to new positions in the sky, giving legends a dynamic twist
which navigators know by sight.
These traditions foreshadowed the great
narrative paintings of the Sistine Chapel. Stained glass cathedral windows used
light as a vehicle for telling the myths of Christianity. Illuminated
manuscripts integrated text and images. The advent of printing brought the
picture book to the masses. The fascination with storytelling in pictures has
led us technically from sequential still images to motion pictures. Early
movies were only still images with slight variations moved mechanically past
the eye. Eadweard Muybridge, in the 1880's, made a bet that a horse at full gallop
would at sometime have all four hooves off the ground simultaneously. Or so the
story goes. To prove it he made sequential photographs every few seconds of the
horse galloping. When the resulting images are played in rapid succession the
horse actually appears to move! From scientific studies of motion, film has
become the major art form and social storyteller of our time. Our most
ubiquitous form of communication, television, has taken the magic lantern of
film to its extreme as a global network of information conditions. The act of
using the air for storytelling has created a terrestrial overbody of electronic
excitation. We literally breath images transmitted every moment, continuously,
night and day. There is no time, no place, on the planet that is exempt from
this information condition. Microwaves create an invisible mesh of pictures,
data, and audio that enclose us in an envelope of possible points of view.
Still the visual narrative, both as a technique and a technological
inspiration, gives us our most plastic mode of comprehension.
Today, computer graphics begin to rival
photographically-produced imagery. The possibility of a completely plastic
medium capable of creating fantastic as well as realistic images in motion is
upon us. This medium has brought us to understand something beyond audio/visual
metaphor, the SIMULATION. Simulation techniques offer dynamic models of the
world which can be investigated and experienced. Multiple points of view allow
the possibility of the user manipulating them to predict the behavior of
complex phenomena.
Early travel logs captured the experience of
visiting far-away lands with drawings and text. The journeys of naturalists
like Audubon in the 18th and 19th centuries made crude surrogate travel
experiences with images of wildlife and stories of native peoples. The travel
photography industry started by photographers in the late 1800's like Francis
Frith, James Valentine, and George Washington Wilson produced volumes of images
taken all over the world that gave the average person a small sense of
"being there". This fascination stimulated stereoscopic photography
and later developments in 3D film. The concept of surrounding oneself with
illusion is a powerful perceptive experience. Even further beyond this is the
concept of being able to manipulate "virtual reality". The most
common example of this today is the flight simulator. Created to give an
aviator or astronaut the experience of controlling an aircraft or spacecraft
this device allows the participant to make mistakes without fear of crashing.
This modern version of the 'memory theater' is interactive and has become
popular as a video game entertainment in the form of auto racing simulators as
well. Simulation, however, is effectively the idea behind scientific
visualization. Weather modeling, for instance, uses satellite imagery of
atmospheric conditions that has been digitally enhanced to react to computer
programs that change variables like wind velocity and humidity levels. The
resulting image of a storm can be predicted visually. Molecular modeling,
diagnostic medicine, brain structure and function, geoscience, astrophysics,
fluid dynamics, mathematics, robotics all make use of simulation technologies
and techniques.
These categories of imagery (spatial,
graphic, pictorial, narrative, and simulation) do overlap naturally. Spatial
imagery like maps uses graphical representation like latitude and longitude.
Pictorial information in sequences creates narrative. And narratives that use
spatial constructions like wrap-around movie screens come close to simulation.
What might a set of syntax mechanisms be that
could serve as linkage agents for these categories that would include both
natural and arbitrary overlaps and intersections:
Appearance: The recognizable attributes of
images. (Color, shape, edges, contrast, opacity, texture, etc.)
Measurement: The scale of images. (How large
or small something is in relation to something else.)
Dimension: The temporal constructs embedded
in images. (Showing process with audio/video, time lapse, slow motion, moving
or still images that capture metamorphic processes, temporal axes in graphs.
Ideas related to duration.)
Perspective: The perspectival aspects of an
image according to the relative position of the viewer. (Vantage point, 1, 2
& 3-point perspective, multiple perspectives, acoustic perspective.)
Using these linkage agents it is possible to
imagine using different categories of imagery to reveal complex ideas. A set of
disciplines and an "interdisciplinary problem" that imagery might
help solve would include:
Humanities
Science
Engineering
I chose Humanities for the obvious breadth of
subject matter - everything from language to fine arts. Science is selected because
of the range of subject matter and problem sets available - everything from
biology to psychology. Engineering was chosen because it combines mathematics
with real world problem sets - everything from mechanical design to
environmental safety.
A suitable interdisciplinary question that
could be asked in any teaching situation from early school through university
might be:
What is the nature of human flight?
How can imagery answer this question?
Let us remind ourselves that it is not
"natural" for humans to fly. There is a long history of the desire to
fly that is reflected in the map - a "bird's eye" view of the
landscape. Was the map a "vision" of flying?
What does the first known map look like? How
were early maps made without flying over the landscape? What is the character
of its "appearance"? How is this spatial image changed as new
communication technologies are developed? What other images of flying are
related? Is the image of the angel related? What about Da Vinci's drawings of
the helicopter? When was the first balloon used to make maps? What scientific
knowledge made balloons possible? How were they engineered? When were the clock
and the map used together? Why? How do maps "measure"? How did maps
change when airplanes were invented? How was the airplane invented? What new
"dimensions" were added to maps when airplanes arrived? Do satellite
photographs now represent maps? Is this a new "perspective" on the
map? Are flying and map-making now inseparable? If we show a film from the
space shuttle of the earth are we looking at a "narrative" map that
"simulates" flying? Can we navigate using this kind of map? Can we
use computers to decode the "appearance" of satellite photo maps to
tell where pollution is occurring?
Obviously the look of a map and the view from
an airplane have a great deal to do with each other. Was the map an inspiration
for humans to fly? Was it a "visualization" of an event that would
only become possible centuries after its conception? How do airplanes work?
Students presented with this kind of visual problem will have to develop
interpretation and evaluation skills that rely upon noticing characteristics of
images. Given a variety of maps, which ones are best for understanding
distance, demographics, or land use? Which ones could have been made by aerial
photography? Which ones are obviously made before the airplane? What kinds of
visual materials are used for designing airplanes? Can we think of design
drawings as maps?
If the topic begins with human flight, an
experience that is derived from an idea, not from actual physical ability, we
are at liberty to try to find out where that "vision" came from.
Looking at maps is an interesting place to begin. The map is spatial, uses
graphical devices for location, has become increasingly pictorial with the use
of photography, with added coding becomes narrative (tells us how many people
live in Boston, etc.), and approaches simulation as we use film instead of
still pictures to render it. Appearances can take us through these categories by
simply looking at examples of different types of maps. Measurement can take us
through the maps by showing how each kind of map changes scale and
distance,etc. Dimension can take us through by showing how something like time
lapse photography changes a map. Changes in perspective can reveal how changes
in technology (higher and higher flights) change the nature of the maps. All of
this, remember, is not to talk about maps but to talk about the human desire to
fly and the science, technology, and engineering that have gone into realizing
that vision.
The categories of spatial, graphical,
pictorial, narrative, and simulation and the linkages of appearance,
measurement, dimension, and perspective form an interesting scheme for teaching
and understanding how imagery conveys and inspires ideas. As new technologies
make the use of audio and visual imagery easy, it will become increasingly
necessary to design and implement schemes for composing them. What should those
schemes look/sound like?
Like Plato, we are striving to visualize an
ideal academy. As educators we now see that ideas have a wide variety of entry
points. Unlike Plato, we seek not the best way of teaching. Rather, we must
investigate designs that point to the plural, the ever richer ways of teaching.
Daniel Boorstin, The Discoverers, New York: Random House, 1983.
Encyclopedia of Modern Technology, Boston: G.K. Hall, 1987.
William Ivins, Prints and Visual Comunication, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
1986.
Stephen Kosslyn and Christopher Chabris, "Naming Pictures",
Journal of Visual Languages and Computing, Volume 1, Number 1, 1990.
Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media, New York: McGraw Hill, 1964.
Ian Ridpath, Star Tales, New York: Universe Books, 1988.
R. Murray Shafer, The Tuning of the World, Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania, 1980.
Edward Tufte, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, Cheshire,
Conn: Graphics Press, 1983.
Francis Yates, The Art of Memory, Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1966.