This chapter consists of the following sections:
Multimedia integrates different media. The vehicle for this integration is the computer manipulation of bits and bytes, megabytes and gigabytes, representing text, images, sound. The special branch of computer/information science concerned with the different possibilities of contact between man and machine is called as 'Human Computer Interaction' ('HCI').
HCI emerged as an independent discipline because of the continuous evolution of computer technology and the needed to understand the point of contact between man and machine. The increasing complexity of systems, forced new solutions to reconciling messages in different modalities. The failure of new computer products, due to bad interface design, made the large-scale funding of research projects in the field very important.
In recent years, the number of disciplines preoccupied with designing media integration systems has increased. In general, there has been a shift from engineering towards more psychologically and artistically oriented work. Designing the user interface is typically an interdisciplinary concern.
Key issues of information design can be astracted from the development of the book. Historians of the book have pointed out that it is the crystallization of centuries of experimentation. In the early days of printing technology books inherited several attributes of manuscripts, making them intractable for readers of the period. The typical book of today is a manageable object, conforming to a set of conventions for presenting information. It contains a foreword, possibly a preface and acknowledgments, and a table of contents. Books evolved clear cut divisions: chapters, sections and paragraphs. Page-numbering, and in some ephemeral booklets even perforated page-corners enable the reader to plot their relative position in the volume. All cues enable the user of the book to locate specific text and images. In short, the physical object does not distract the reader from its contents. The reader does not have to worry about changing appearances; with relative ease he/she may concentrate on the text and accompanying illustrations. The writer on the other hand does not have to be both text-supplier and a page composer. Layout questions are left to the graphic designer.
Some major transformations have taken place in the history of human-computer interface design. One is the change from a text-based, "conversational" model of interaction between human and machine, towards one in which the user may ultimately become an actor in a (virtual) theatre (Laurel, 1993, pg.33).
In the early days of computer building, the operator of the machine was provided with very mechanical means to interact with the systems. Plugs, switches, real knobs and dials were used to control the processing of data. Later on, text-based command languages were developed and for years human-computer interaction was essentially a matter of typing in strings of text, using keyboard, punchcards, and feeding the machine with these strings in batch mode. The system typically responded with printouts of data on fanfold paper. The use of the cathode ray tube display (CRT), and a more advanced keyboard (with special keys for special functionality) ameliorated the job. The emphasis of computerization was on characteristics of the technology, less so on attributes of the user.
A major breakthrough was the introduction of the Macintosh Graphical User Interface, which was marketed only four years after the introduction of the ASCII text-based IBM/DOS PC in 1981. Using a combination of earlier inventions developed by Xerox but never marketed (windows, mouse, the desktop metaphor) this was the first commercially succesful operating system enabling software developers to use semi-consistent graphical features in their application programs.
The wide-spread use of operating systems and application programs modeled after the Macintosh scheme, implies that the general, "lay" user of computer systems is familiar with the operations of a mouse, scrolling menu bars, rows of buttons or icons representing data, programs, actions etc. The designer of a human-computer interaction may take advantage of these conventions as the starting point for multimedia design and authoring.
Just as present day wordprocessors have incorporated a range of the standard features of books (including style sheets, index functions, automatic table of content generating routines etc.), most of today's multimedia authoring languages now have tools to implement common navigational features (backtracking mechanisms, history lists, linkmaps, bookmarks, arbitrary jump functionality, etc. ). Most current authoring systems have extensive capabilities, from which the application developer may adopt what is necessary to establish specific functionality in his system.
Multimedia applications may be developed for a wide variety of purposes The kind of interaction anticipated may vary from relatively short sessions aimed at the retrieval of specific information from a structured multimedia database, to hypermedia 'storytelling' at the other end of the scale.
A considerable number of components have crystallized. The difficulty for truly interactive multimedia systems is that "a skillful designer must be conversant with all the base media that are combined in a multimedia environment." (Hodges and Sasnett, 1993, pg 39). This implies that the novice or less flexible user of a multimedia system will often be confused by the complexity of the presentation.
It is to distinguish between the conceptual organization of the information delivered, and the appearance of this organization on the screen. The first presupposes the latter. The cleverest interface designer will not be able to supply the user with a sense of control if the information architecture fails to be lucid. (Hodges and Sasnett, Reading, 1993, pg.47).
There are many levels of design from the general aims and target of an interactive multimedia project to the fine tuning of the user interface, or the definition of the data storage structure. The main question one should address at the very beginning is who is talking to whom, in which communication process?
An analysis of the way a museum communicates with its public can be a useful discovery of its communication process which, in turn, can inform future interactive multimedia products.
"Une technique de l'intention," a booklet published in 1992 by Direction des Muses de France, points out four main stages in producing interactive content : analysis, design, realization, assessment and distribution.
Depending on the context and the constraints, designers should be able to clarify the interactive multimedia project rationale, to define the program scope, and to set up methods of evaluation by creating a preliminary analysis.
Typical constraints in the design of an interactive multimedia application for museums include:
- media configuration and performance, e.g. designers might have
multi-platform development strategy aimed at producing for the
publishing market, or a very tailored approach for a specific
installation in a museum exhibition,
- the availability of expertise about the subject,
- the accessibility of related multimedia documentation,
- the budget and the deadline.
There are a number of kinds of multimedia products and combinations of products that might be applicable to the project. Some of these are:
CD ROM presentation
CD ROM with presentation materials from a database
CD ROM Presentation with user tools
CD ROM with presentation materials from a database w/user tools
CD ROM with presentation materials from network database
On-line presentation of an in-house multimedia database
On-line presentation with data from network database servers
On-line presentation, user interactive tools
On-line presentation with data from network database servers, user interactive tools
The look and feel, interface and functionality of existing products should be evaluated. It often helps to make a chart of comparative features of existing products. Looking at these products will reveal the the puzzle that multimedia design and production represents. Production is always governed by the delivery requirements, hardware limitations, storage capacities, and the speed of the programs that present the information. All the existing products analysed will demonstrate the trade-offs the designers had to deal with in order to bring the project to the perceived market. The processor speed, the hard disk storage and access, and memory limitations have all been juggled to create the best application for the investment.
The preliminary design document is a summary of the intended goals, content, and form that a project will take. It is a simple, concise statement of purpose. It can be illustrated with flowcharts, screen designs, or storyboard sketches of how the project will appear in its final form. This is the document that gets everyone associated with the funding, production, and distribution of the final product excited. Nothing in the document is set in cement, but it should give the reader the feeling that this is good idea with market viability and sincere commitment to make it the best. The preliminary design document outline should include:
Project Goals
- Scheduled Release
- Subject and importance
- Educational experience
- Promotional aspects
- Range of audience
- Quality of production
Program Map
- Flowchart of the project components
- Storyboards of screens
Concept
- Focus of the project
- Experts
- Generic Program Structure
- Inquiry Model
- General vs. Specific Content
Program Scenario
- Introduction
- Main Menu
- Module Metaphors
- User Tools
Key elements in this outline are the flowchart (a diagram that represents modules in boxes linked by lines) which describes the general structure of the interactive multimedia application, and defines the main branching alternatives and the The storyboard which is a graphical representation of how the user will perceive the content. The scenario presents all details about each component of the storyboard, relating to the interactive philosophy and the user-interface.
Through the interactive multimedia application the user receives information from the system. This is the visible part of the iceberg of interactivity. In fact interactivity links the user with the author(s) of the content (designers, subject matter experts), and/or some programmed set of functions (database, artificial intelligence) in a communication process. The designers decide how users will navigate through the multimedia content.
Designing a interactive multimedia involves selecting or generating information as well as representing the structure and the content to the user through the interface. These activities are concurrent, but very closely tied together. A narrative approach to interface design provides a framework that allows the structure and content of the knowledge base to evolve together, while accommodating a variety of contexts defined by the user's needs and interests. This is what Abbe Don explained in 1990: "Within that framework, interface designers can adapt strategies from narrative theory, such as including multiple representations of events and information, or using characters as a means of representing material with an explicitly acknowledged point of view".
Designers should keep in mind what is considered today as the more efficient metaphors and activities to be performed with a computer, among them:
- New forms of inquiry that engage people.
- Object-designing activities (Royal Ontario Museum's "Build a Bird").
- Linear parameter control (interactive time-lines)
- Remote access to documentation and databases
The Preliminary Design Document evolves into the Design Specification that lays out the intended interface design and the functional design. This document becomes the road-map for the production.
After the above meetings, deliberations, and Preliminary Design Document it becomes necessary to create a Design Specification that must be reviewed and updated on a regular schedule until it can be frozen into a final Production Specification.
The Design Specification outlines materials available to date and how access to them works, objectives related to content-specifics, production process-related events, and technical requirements and experiments necessary to fully determine needs. Functionalities, interface attributes. platforms required, audience needs, and the target user-environment (where will it be used, what issues need to be considered to fit this environment) and publishing intentions are all included in the Design Specification:
Preface: Should define terminology used in the specification, describe the nature of illustrations used in the document, and layout how the document will be revised and distributed.
Section 1: Project Treatment Summary
Updated version of the original Preliminary Design Document with changes included from deliberations and initial administrative meetings.
Market Studies: All relevant information about products and projects that are similar with their strengths and weaknesses. A chart is useful.
Brief descriptions of sections in Design Spec: Layout how the spec works by describing the main Chapter headings: Resources, Metaphors, Application Definition, Design Strategy, Application Description, Work Schedules, Appendix (relationships to future projects, etc.)
Section 2: Resources
Describe all equipment necessary to the project, how electronic data will be stored and backed up, all materials by type, location, and if they are in electronic forms (text, stills graphics, animations, audio movies/videos, and other necessary production). This is the preliminary master list of all the resources for the project.
Section 3: Metaphors
Section should describe the basic knowledge representation metaphors and the user tool metaphors that are proposed for the application. Is it a visit to a place like a museum where someone will use a notebook to cut and paste information from the museum into their own collection? The basic metaphors in this case are architecture, travel, notebooks, personal collections. Describe why they are appropriate to the content as well as why they are an interesting and exciting approach.
Section 4: Presentation Application
Give a general overview of how materials are going to be presented to the user. List the current resources available, describe the delivery requirements; illustrate and describe the look and feel, describe the software modules that will be created in the prototype like the attract screen, the main menu, help facilities, the index the credits, the glossary.
Describe the content specific modules (a biography, a gallery, a secret archive, an e-mail post office, etc). Describe how the inter-module linkages will work. How do you get from the main menu to the gallery? Show the preliminary flow chart and storyboards of the project.
Section 5: User Interactions
Give a preliminary general overview of the goals and concept of how the user interacts with the application. Is it for education, training, or entertainment or some combination. What are the anticipated user questions, learning structure, delivery requirements, look and feel, User tool modules (notebook, timeline, etc. ), and educator resources (ancillary material like teacher guides, kits, bibliographies, classroom handouts, tutorials on using materials for lesson plans, etc) should be identified.
Section 6: Work Schedules and Responsibilities
This section should layout the preliminary staffing for design and production. It should also discuss how content expertise will interact with the design and production team. Will the content experts work directly with the team or through the project manager? How will the alternatives be facilitated. The Design Specification Schedule (how and when this document will be updated and distributed for comment, and to whom it will be distributed. Has an advisory board for the project been created for instance?
Preliminary schedule for implementation of the prototyping and final production, testing, and publishing. This can be a spread-sheet print out.
Copyright issues and responsibilities for acquiring or negotiating rights can be spelled out here.
Section 7: Authors and Comments
Brief description of the document authors and how they can be contacted. Remember this is a working document and will be revised right through prototyping until it is frozen and production begins. New reviewers can be added all through this process. As many views of the project as can be obtained without giving away a good idea are desirable. Distribution of the document should be in the control of the project manager.
While design specifications are being researched, documented and circulated it is useful to produce a small scale prototype as a proof of concept demonstration, and to determine the process for each media type as well as the production costs. Even if it is not a full scale production, it needs the same kind of human competences: project manager, author(s), writers, editors and indexers, software designer(s), graphic artist(s), programmer(s), technical assistant(s), audio-visual specialists, reviewers and testers. Making a prototype may be a selection tool for the team that eventually will produce the full-scale interactive multimedia application.
Prototyping ideally takes the form of three versions and three rounds of evaluation by the technical team, content experts, and naive users:
Prototype 1: Key features
evaluation
Prototype 2: Key features and problematic secondary features
evaluation
Prototype 3: As much of the application as time and money allows
evaluation
Evaluation must be a permanent process from preliminary analysis until delivery, rather than merely a concurrent process during the design phase. Still, the end of the design stage is a crucial point as later in the project it will be very expensive to make major changes. This is why a prototype is sometimes the only way to perceive the 'look and feel' of a written design for interactive multimedia products. What is notably at stake with evaluation is quality, reliability, and the checking of preliminary behavorial and measurable objectives.
An important issue to be dealt with at the design stage is copyright of desired content. Rights to convert materials into electronic form for use in an interactive multimedia application must be explicitly negotiated. As there are few centralized organizations that administer copyright, this can be a complex process. Talking about a real case, Danmarks Radio producer Peter Olaf Looms explained that "it required considerable time and energy on our part, but our experience also showed that problems were rarely insurmountable". It is good practice to draft agreements with contributing partners which stipulate that it is the contributor's responsibility to obtain the necessary authorizations to use reproductions, photographs, etc.
With the final Design Specification and final prototype application completed, reviewed, and approved, the final Production Specification can be written. An appropriate budget and an exact plan can now be done for the production phase, including critical tasks, monitoring and control procedures (e.g. problem reporting and resolution). The project manager should also define the work schedule, the file sharing and organizational procedures, and estimate resources and materials required. All the content components that have to be produced benefit from very precise scripts (from video sequences to voice over). They should be precisely listed, written or documented (e.g. video shots, animation descriptions, book locations). This phase is the most important as it produces a written design specification that enables the programmers to efficiently execute their work. It also provides a shared document that can be updated and changed as necessary, giving all those involved a consistent image of the progress of the project. It also remains as written documentation of the process and execution of the process.
In the multimedia application, spoken or written language and/or dynamic graphic design enable the user to master the data stored in the machine. Mastering means: being able to "get at the record" (Bush, pg. 85-110) with relative ease. The user interface designer fails to do his job well if the user experiences disorientation during his interaction with the machine/system.
The focus in the process of designing a multimedia application is thus on characteristics of the user, characteristics of the machine, and characteristics of the interaction between these components.
Multimedia development seems to be towards ever greater inter-dependencies between the contents of a multimedia system and the different layers of the command structure and interaction techniques used.
Preliminary Analysis Methodology
Preliminary Design Document Outline
Preliminary Design Specification
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7. Project Management 9. Defining Structures